But because only the flames are blue, rather than the lava itself, the effect is only visible at nightduring daytime, the volcano looks like roughly any other. But as we were recently reminded, the summit of Klauea is part of a dynamic system that has provided countless new views to observers, The first eruption at Klaueas summit in 25 years began on March 19, 2008, and persisted for 10 years. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "How Blue Lava Works and Where to See It." You can help our automatic cover photo selection by reporting an unsuitable photo. The burning happens day and night, but it's visible only in darkness. Kawah Ijen Crater Lake is green because of the hydrochloric acid in the water. Grunewald did not use any filters to capture his images of the blue fire. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS Some volcanic eruptions are explosive and others are not. This makes the volcano's summit about 17 km (10.5 mi) above its base! Each local worker is paid about 680 Indonesian rupiahs per kilogram, the equivalent of about six USD cents. Pallister described the miners' daily routine as "tough duty." These tales are worse. There are many paths to becoming a volcanologist. Manage My Data Some of the workers arechildren, seeking to support their families by any means possible. They can carry loads of 176 to 220 pounds (80 to 100 kilos) once a dayor twice if they work into the night. Because the gases are pressurized, the blue flames shoot up to 5 meters in the air. After the solid sulfur cools, the miners break it up and haul it off the mountain on their backs. At times they work at night under the eerie blue light to escape the heat of the sun, and to earn extra income, Grunewald said. However, the blue glow doesn't actually come from lava and the phenomenon isn't restricted to that volcano. You may unsubscribe at any time. Unlike regular volcanoes whose bright red lava is visible in the day, Kawah Ijens blue burning flames can only be seen at night. Sulfur burns with a blue flame. Exposed to the oxygen present in air and sparked by lava, the sulfurburns readily, and its flames are bright blue. It is a 2-hour hike to the rim of the volcano, followed by a 45-minute hike down to the caldera. Rakovan, J. How many active volcanoes are there on Earth? When they come in contact with the air, they ignite, sending flames up to 16 feet (5 meters) high. The Ijen volcano complexhas some of the highest levels of sulfur in the world. Indonesia's giant capital city is sinking. Another volcanic location known for the blue fire is Yellowstone National Park. Werner noted that forest fires in Yellowstone National Park have caused similar "rivers," as heat from the blazes melted the sulfur around hydrothermal vents. The Ijen volcano complex holds another, darker secret. "It is due to the combustion of sulfuric gases in contact with air at temperatures above 360C.". Joseph Stromberg was previously a digital reporter for Smithsonian. When Grunewaldphotographs Kawah Ijen, he wears a gas mask as protection against toxic gases, including sulfur dioxide. When she and her colleagues work in Indonesia, "we usually bring gas masks and leave them there with the people we work with, because sometimes they don't know that what they are breathing is harmful.". Multiple simultaneous hazard events unfolded, including sustained seismic activity leading to collapse at the summit of Halema'uma'u crater and severe damage to the HVO facility, with additional eruption of lava in t, Volcanic eruptions are among Earths most dramatic and powerful agents of change. Yellowstone National Park in the United States also has "blue lava." Yellow indicates a temperature of about 1,0001,200 degrees Celsius (1,8322,192 degrees Fahrenheit). Cookie Settings, Grunewald's previous projects of landscapes and wildlife, Three Climbers Reported Dead at Glacier National Park, City in Japan Under Siege by Marauding Monkeys, These Pollinating Crustaceans Are the Bees of the Sea. What is the Islamic New Yearand how is it celebrated? This new vent is one of two ongoing eruptions on the volcano. Stay on top of the latest engineering news just enter your email and well take care of the rest. To speed up the formation of the mineral, a mining company installed ceramic pipes on an active vent near the edge of the lake, said John Pallister, a USGS geologist who has studied the volcano. Some of the miners do have gas masks that visitors have given them, said Grunewald, but they "have no money and no opportunity to change the filters. How to see Stonehenge: Everything you need to know. });*/ Without gas masks or other safety equipment, many of the mine's workers suffer long-term health problems resulting from sulfur exposure. If the temperature is high enough, the sulfur will burn. An extension you use may be preventing Wikiwand articles from loading properly. No state is losing land like Louisiana. Unauthorized use is prohibited. This summer, adventure is never far away with Nat Geo Premium with Disney+. Sulfur combusts on contact with air to create stunning bluelava-like rivers of light in the Kawah Ijen crater onthe island of Java. Eat sea urchins. Rising seas threaten the Gullah Geechee. There's so much sulfur, Grunewald says, that at times it flows down the rock face as it burns, making it seem as though blue lava is spilling down the mountainside. Sulfur is an inexpensive element to obtain in pure form, so feel free to make plastic sulfur or grow sulfur crystals yourself to see these strange colors. "It is very rare to see that," said Grunewald. Sulfur is an interesting non-metal that displays different colors, depending on its state of matter. After several nights in the crater, we felt really living on another planet.. The working conditions are highly dangerous. In the Kawah Ijen crater, sulfuric gases escaping from cracks ignite as they come in contact with the air. Cover photo is available under {{::mainImage.info.license.name || 'Unknown'}} license. It is one of the world's most unusual volcanoes because instead of producing the usual red lava and black smoke, its underground activities result in bright blue flames rising into the air. Photographer Olivier Grunewald worked with the president of the Geneva Society for Volcanology, Rgis Etienne to create a documentary about the mining operation at Ijen. Traces of these flows appear as black lines. The onset of the eruption marked the first explosive activity at the summit since 1924, forming the new Overlook crater (as the 2008 summit eruption crater has been informally named) within the existing crater of Halemaumau. The following 10 years provided unprecedented access to an actively circulating lava lake located within a region monitored by numerous geodetic tools, including Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), tilt, and gravity. A decade of geodetic change at Klaueas summitObservations, interpretations, and unanswered questions from studies of the 20082018 Halemaumau eruption, Groundwater dynamics at Klauea Volcano and vicinity, Hawaii, Views of a century of activity at Klauea CalderaA visual essay, Klaueas 20082018 summit lava lakeChronology and eruption insights, U.S. Geological Survey 2018 Klauea Volcano eruption response in Hawai'iAfter-action review, Undocumented late 18th- to early 19th-century volcanic eruptions in the Southwest Rift Zone of Klauea Volcano, Hawaii, Klauea summit eruptionLava returns to Halemaumau, The ongoing Puu eruption of Klauea Volcano, Hawaii: 30 years of eruptive activity, Mauna Loa--history, hazards and risk of living with the world's largest volcano, Eruptions of Hawaiian volcanoes - Past, present, and future. Most of the minersdo not have gas masks (which the photographers wore throughout shooting and distributed to miners afterward), and suffer from health problems due to prolonged exposure to sulfur dioxide and other toxic gases. The active Hawaiia, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20192, Region 2: South Atlantic-Gulf (Includes Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands), Region 12: Pacific Islands (American Samoa, Hawaii, Guam, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands), Remotely measuring the temperature of Klauea lava. "The night seriously increased the difficulty as well, because it became almost impossible to see when dense gases arrivedat times, we were stuck in gas plumes for over an hour without being able to see our hands. His photos make the blue flames appear dramatically beautiful, even surreal. Since the eruption began in 1983, lava flows have buried 48 square miles (125 square kilometers) of land and added about 500 acres (200 hectares) of new land to the Island of Hawaii. The miners sell the sulfur for about 600 Indonesian rupiah per kilo (less than 25 U.S. cents per pound), said Grunewald. Here's a look at the chemical composition of the blue stuff and where you can go to see it. Terms of Use It is associated with some volcanic eruptions. The eruption not only challenges local communities, which must adapt to an ever-changing and sometimes-destructive e, Mauna Loa on the Island Hawaii is the worlds largest volcano. "Blue lava" is the name given to the electric-blue flames emitted by molten sulfur. A river of sulfur flows near Kawah Ijen's acid lake. Since it is lighter than the solid rock around it, magma rises and collects in magma chambers. Ph.D., Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee at Knoxville, B.A., Physics and Mathematics, Hastings College. He has seen many of them using only wet cloths as gas masks. How do lava flows cool and how long does it take? }, 1000); For full access to all features and product updates. If you don't have sulfur but want to make a glowing blue eruption, grab some tonic water, Mentos candies, and a black light and make a glowing Mentos volcano. Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and become a thick flowing substance called magma. (new Image()).src = 'https://capi.connatix.com/tr/si?token=ccdf6666-bdf4-4cd8-9b97-ca1bf497568c&cid=feba1ea1-d935-44da-860a-ed08f7cecaae'; Now, after centuries of degradation, both people and wildlife are finding their way back to city waters. As they burn, sulfur condenses into a liquid, which flows downward. "It is impossible to stay a long time close to a dense acid gas without a mask," he said. Workers who collect and sell the sulfur typically do not wear protection, so you can leave your mask for them when you leave. The vision of these flames at night is strange and extraordinary, Photographer Olivier Grunewald says. All rights reserved. Kawah Ijen Crater Lake, at the top of the volcano, is the world's largest such body of water filled with hydrochloric acid. Those gases emerge from cracks in the volcano at high pressure and temperatureup to 1,112F (600C). The solid is yellow. The Ijen volcano system in Indonesia is a popular tourist destination for people wishing to observe the phenomenon. Sign up for our weekly newsletter today. Miners have been extracting sulfur here for more than 40 years. You've Got Ingredients for a Chemical Volcano, Take Your Volcano Science Project to the Next Level, The Green Flash Phenomenon and How to See It, The Mount Pinatubo Eruption in the Philippines, How to Make a Homemade Volcano That Smokes. According to Werner, it's relatively common to find molten sulfur around volcanic fumaroles (hot vents). Advertising Notice The outer surface of erupting lava cools incredibly quickly (by hundreds of degrees per second) when it is first exposed to air. For faster navigation, this Iframe is preloading the Wikiwand page for, Note: preferences and languages are saved separately in https mode. The pipes route the sulfur gases down the vent's sloping mound. If you are using an Ad-Blocker, it might have mistakenly blocked our content. But the beautiful phenomenon also reveals a dark secret. The lava that flows from the Kawah Ijen volcano on the island of Java is the usual glowing red color of molten rock flowing from any volcano. Where is the largest active volcano in the world? A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Stay ahead with the latest science, technology and innovation news for free. Although the Kawah volcano is most readily accessible, other volcanoes in the Ijen may also produce the effect. "I have also seen the miners spraying water from a small pump onto the pipes to promote cooling and condensation," said Pallister via email. If you view the volcano during the day, it wouldn't appear unusual. The tubes contained the heat so efficiently that the lava was still a sizzling 1,140 degrees Celsius (2,085 degrees Fahrenheit) when it reached the ocean. "This blue glowunusual for a volcanoisn't, of course, lava, as unfortunately can be read on many websites," Grunewald told National Geographic in an email about Kawah Ijen, a volcano on the island of Java. Little of the web coverage, though, has enlightened readers on the scientific principles at work. | What was the largest volcanic eruption in the 20th century? playerId: "ccdf6666-bdf4-4cd8-9b97-ca1bf497568c" "The main problem was the acidic gases that whirled constantly in the crater," he says. Since it was mentioned on TV (National Geographic to be precise) the number of tourists who travel to East Java and Indonesia has significantly increased. When it cools, elemental sulfur forms a polymer or plastic or monoclinic crystals (depending on conditions), that spontaneously change into rhombic crystals. Dr. Helmenstine holds a Ph.D. in biomedical sciences and is a science writer, educator, and consultant. Rising gradually to more than 4 km (2.5 mi) above sea level, Hawaiis Mauna Loa is the largest active volcano on our planet. "This blue glow, unusual for a volcano, isn't thelava itself, as unfortunately can be read on many websites," Grunewald says. If you travel to Indonesia to see it, you should bring a gas mask to protect yourself from the fumes, which may be harmful to your health. Get the best of Nat Geo in streaming, digital, and in print today. "During my first trip, I lost a camera and two lenses that had been corroded by acid," he says. The discovery of a fossil horse tooth in Haiti has given surprising credence to the idea the horses escaped from a Spanish shipwreck off Virginia around 1750. Its submarine flanks descend to the sea floor an additional 5 km (3 mi), and the sea floor in turn is depressed by Mauna Loa's great mass another 8 km (5 mi). The Kawah Ijen volcano releases unusually high levels of sulfuric gases, so it's probably the best place to view the phenomenon. It's still burning, so it looks like blue lava. Before you go, please share your opinion it in the comments below! Orange indicates a slightly cooler temperature of about 8001,000 degrees Celsius (1,4721,832 degrees Fahrenheit). A detailed narrative by Ellis includes an account of an eruption in Klaueas Southwest Rift Zone that occurred shortl, In March 2008, a new volcanic vent opened within Halemaumau, a crater at the summit of Klauea Volcano in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Island of Hawaii. Because of its low melting point and availability, you can burn sulfur in a flame and see this for yourself. Volcanoes are the center of folklore and myth wherever they exist. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-blue-lava-works-607589 (accessed July 31, 2022). Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "How Blue Lava Works and Where to See It." They're fighting back. Learn more: USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. Visitors to East Java can take a guided group tour at night to the volcano to see the blue flame phenomenon for themselves. Hazardous volcanic conditions might la, The historical record of volcanic activity at Klauea Volcano on the Island of Hawaii begins with the phreatomagmatic blasts of 1790. The phenomenon is caused when the volcano's sulfuric gases come into contact with air temperature above 360C. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/how-blue-lava-works-607589. Eventually, some of the magma pushes through vents and fissures to the Earth's surface. In other words, the lavamolten rock that emerges from the Earth at ultra-high temperaturesisn't colored significantly differently than the lava at other volcanoes, which all differ slightly based on their mineral composition but appear a bright red or orange color in their molten state. By clicking Accept All Cookies, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. (11 December 2015). None has a bolder plan. The tube system of episode 53 (Pu'u O'o eruption) carried lava for 10 kilometers (6 miles) from the vent to the sea. Official websites use .gov Even when a volcano is quiet, steep volcanic slopes can collapse to become landslides, and large rocks can be hurled by powerful steam blasts. The temperature of the lavain the tubes is about 1,250 degrees Celsius (2,200 degrees Fahrenheit). 2022 Smithsonian Magazine The photo credit line may appear like this, Physicist Responsible for the God Particle Dies at 96 Years Old, Meet Bert, The AI System That Can Finish Your Sentence, Gas Stations on Mars Could One Day Be a Reality. Olivier Grunewalds dramatic photos showcase blue flamesnot blue lavathat result from burning sulfur. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. (2021, February 16). In a country where the median daily income is about $13, many work overnight to supplement their income. All rights reserved. Here are some temperatures recorded at different times and locations: Yellowstone is a plateau high in the Rocky Mountains, and is snowbound for over six months per year. Why Did Europeans Evolve Into Becoming Lactose Tolerant. A system of moveable walls, called Moses, protects Venice from colossal high tides that are worsening with climate change. There are about 1,350 potentially active volcanoes worldwide, aside from the continuous belts of volcanoes on the ocean floor at spreading centers like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Snapped during shooting of a new documentaryhe's releasing with the president of Geneva's Society for Volcanology, Rgis Etienne, the photostaken without the aid of any filter or digital enhancementshowcase the volcano's amazing electric blue glow. Because sulfur has a relatively low melting point of239F (115C), it can flow for some distance before solidifying into the familiar yellow form of the element. "When you go to Yellowstone, you can see their traces as black lines," she said. Very hot!! Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic SocietyCopyright 2015-2022 National Geographic Partners, LLC. "Blue flames may also be observed at the base of the plume of erupting volcanoes, when ash explosions occur," he added. The eruption temperature of Klauea lava is about 1,170 degrees Celsius (2,140 degrees Fahrenheit). In modern times, volcanic phenomena have attracted intense scientific interest, because they provide the key to understanding processes that have created and shaped more than 80 percent of the Earth's surface. ThoughtCo, Feb. 16, 2021, thoughtco.com/how-blue-lava-works-607589. The duration of these simultaneous summit and rift zone eruptions on Kl, Founded in 1912 at the edge of the caldera of Klauea Volcano, HVO was the vision of Thomas A. Jaggar, Jr., a geologist from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, whose studies of natural disasters around the world had convinced him that systematic, continuous observations of seismic and volcanic activity were needed to better understandand potentially predictearthquakes and volcanic erupti, The Puu eruption of Klauea Volcano is its longest rift-zone eruption in more than 500 years. {{::lang.NameEnglish}} - {{::lang.NameNative}}, {{::mainImage.info.license.name || 'Unknown'}}, {{current.info.license.usageTerms || current.info.license.name || current.info.license.detected || 'Unknown'}}, Uploaded by: {{current.info.uploadUser}} on {{current.info.uploadDate | date:'mediumDate'}}. cnxps({ Kawah Ijen volcano is the subject of a new documentary released earlier this month that was produced by Grunewald and Rgis Etienne, the president of Geneva's Society of Volcanology. ", Just 30 nights in the crater, distributed over six trips, were enough to show Grunewald howdestructive the environment of these mines can be. Grunewald first heard about the phenomenon from Etienne, who visited the volcano in 2008 with an Indonesian guide. However, there is one volcano that has a reputation that surpasses all others, Indonesias Kawah Ijen volcano, otherwise known as the blue volcano. "To double their meagerincome, the hardiest of these men work nights, by the electric blue light of the sulfuric acid exhaled by the volcano," Grunewald says. Be the first to read our latest stories, analysis, and trend-spotting on tech from every corner on earth. When the gases cool, they condense into liquid sulfur, which then flows or drips from the pipes and solidifies into hard sulfur mats. However, Yellowstone is also an active geothermal area with hot springs emerging at ~92C (~198F) (the boiling point of water at Yellowstone's mean altitude) and steam vents reported as high as 135C (275F) Scientists use the term magma for molten rock that is underground and lava for molten rock that breaks through the Earth's surface. After being shown Etienne'sphoto featuring a child miner's silhouette surrounded by the blue glow, he was struck by the idea of photographing the mountain's sulfur miners working at night. The work is unregulated and small children can often be seen scrambling up and down the slopes hoping to support their families low incomes with additional money. This browser is not supported by Wikiwand :( Wikiwand requires a browser with modern capabilities in order to provide you with the best reading experience.Please download and use one of the following browsers: An extension you use may be preventing Wikiwand articles from loading properly. Would you like to suggest this photo as the cover photo for this article? Forest fires have been known to melt and burn sulfur, causing it to flow as burning blue "rivers" in the park. The views of the lava lake (informally named Overlook, nestled within Halemaumau) lasted for a decade and seemed timeless. These d, Klauea Volcano, on the Island of Hawaii, is surrounded and permeated by active groundwater systems that interact dynamically with the volcanic system. Indonesia's Kawah Ijen and other craters emit rivers of light from burning sulfur. Cynthia Werner, a research geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) at the Alaska Volcano Observatory, told National Geographic that Grunewald's photos show an unusual phenomenon. Although the phenomenon occurs all the time, the blue flames are most visible at night. This popular complex is situated within Ijen crater with stratovolcano Gunung Merapi as the highest point. "After several nights in the crater, we felt really living on another planet.". By subscribing, you agree to ourTerms of Use andPrivacy Policy. Three decades later, in 1823, the first party of non-Hawaiian visitors, organized by the English Reverend William Ellis, reached Klaueas summit. Liquid sulfur is blood red (resembling lava). Your input will affect cover photo selection, along with input from other users. The world's largest eruption of the 20th century occurred in 1912 at Novarupta on the Alaska Peninsula in what is now Katmai National Park and Preserve. setTimeout(() => { This dense collection of the gas, when exposed to oxygen and lit by the molten hot lava burns blue. Indonesia's Kawah Ijen volcano gained internet fame for Paris-based photographerOlivier Grunewald's photographs of its stunning electric blue lava. Werner explained how the lake became so acidic: The volcano emitted hydrogen chloride gas, which reacted with the water and formed a highly condensed hydrochloric acid with a pH of almost 0. "Sulfur stalactites sometimes form from the liquid sulfur dripping from the pipes. Please be respectful of copyright. The first year consisted of sporadic lava activity deep within the, The 2018 Klauea Volcano eruption lasted 107 days, and now ranks as the most destructive event at Kilauea since 1790, and as one of the most costly volcanic disasters in U.S. history. The glow is actually the light from the combustion of sulfuric gases, Grunewald explained. Please click the "Downloads" icon in the Safari toolbar, open the first download in the list. An estimated 15 cubic kilometers of magma was explosively erupted during 60 hours beginning on June 6th. Tigers have nearly tripled in Nepal, but at what cost? Horrific summer travels? As the burning gases cool, they deposit sulfur around the lake. Stunning Electric-Blue Flames Erupt From Volcanoes. Grunewald and Etienne produced the documentary partly to bring attention to these harsh working conditions. Joseph Stromberg But for the miners that spend months or years at the volcano, the sulfur dioxide is quite real, and thehealth effects of chronic exposurethroat and lung irritation, difficulty breathing and a propensity for lung diseasecan be devastating. The Big Apple has a rich and storied maritime history. There is no definitive evidence that an eruption at one volcano can trigger an eruption at a volcano thats hundreds of kilometers/miles away or on a different continent. Word to the Wise: Blue Lava. But at Kawah Ijen,extremely high quantities of sulfuric gasesemerge at high pressures and temperatures (sometimes in excess of600C) along with the lava. The active Kawah Ijen Volcano is part of a complex of volcanoes in Banywang Regency, Java. Don't forget to schedule your trip and get a guide as the whole place can be quite dangerous! They carry rock-filled baskets by hand down the mountain, selling it for about 680 Indonesian rupiahsper kilogram, the equivalent of about six cents. A lock () or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. | READ MORE. Other volcanic regions with fumaroles also experience the event. The depression is geologically active, with hydrothermal vents and sulfur springs, some of which are tourist attractions. "The powder of sulfur could burn for a few days.". /*cnxps.cmd.push(function () { "After we got back home, it took up to three weeks for our skin to lose the smell of sulfur.". A generalized conceptual model of Hawaiian hydrogeology includes high-level dike-impounded groundwater, very permeable perched and basal aquifers, and a transition (mixing) zone between freshwater and saltwater. Although most fumaroles aren't open to the public during the night (for fairly obvious safety reasons), if you live in a volcanic region, it might be worth watching and waiting for sunset to see if there is blue fire or blue "lava". The flowing electric blue color arises from the combustion of sulfur-rich gases. He describes working on the challenging project saying: The main problem was the acidic gases that whirled constantly in the crater. In fact, it's the acid that makes the water green. Howard, Brian Clark (January 30, 2014). If you wish to read similar content, make sure to follow our site and add us on Facebook and Twitter! Molten sulfur may be found around many volcanic fumaroles. Over the past month, the web has come alive with French photographer Olivier Grunewald's spectacular photos of Indonesia's Kawah Ijen volcano. We encourage you to keep checking theUSGS On March 19, 2008, a small explosion heralded the onset of an extraordinary eruption at the summit of Klauea Volcano. Shooting these striking photossome taken just a few feet away from the flameswas far more physically demanding than most of Grunewald's previous projects of landscapes and wildlife. While the turquoise water of this crater lake is quite spectacular, it can also threaten your life. In Ethiopia's Danakil Depression, the sulfur dust in the soil of a hydrothermal vent ignites to form blue flames. Critics point to bigger issues with poorly regulated wildlife farmingnot just the market itselfas the root cause of COVID-19. Its expanding population, Viewing an erupting volcano is a memorable experience, one that has inspired fear, superstition, worship, curiosity, and fascination since before the dawn of civilization. The Afar region is famous for having the world's highest average temperature of 93F (34C), thanks in part to the volcanic activity. Privacy Statement Would you like to visit this part of the world? Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Age-old secrets revealed from the first metropolises, New law in Spain could help families in their search for relatives, How we went from hunter-gatherers to monument builders, How multiple COVID-19 infections can harm the body, Inside the hunt for mysterious twilight asteroids, Debate deepens over Wuhan market's role in the pandemic, 'Lost' treasure trove of fossils rediscovered after 70 years, How a satellite found a tiny islandand made Canada a bit bigger, How you should dispose of unused or expired medications, Menorcas houses of the dead reveal these ancient secrets.
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